Official newsletter of the WCW
#10 April 2000
Chukotkan Whaling: Technology, Tradition and Hope Combine
to Save a People
The Resumption of the Bowhead Hunt in Chukotka
The Benefits of Technical Assistance
Whale Carcass Lands on Hunt Opponent's Doorstep
Ahousaht Feast on Drowned Whale
Mounting Evidence Casts Doubt on Dolphins' "Gentle" Nature
Polar Bears Feast on Beluga Whales
Chukotkan Whaling: Technology, Tradition and Hope Combine
to Save a People
"Nobody will decide for us. We ourselves should think of the preservation of the most ancient culture-marine mammal hunting, which is the basis of life, culture and the language of the coastal dwellers of Chukotka. We should maintain ourselves a unique peoples, and pass the experience of our traditional mode of life on to our descendants." From the text of a letter, sent in March 1995 to all marine hunters in Chukotka communities.
Far from the world's urban centres, in a region of rock, ice and sea, a whaling people are drawing on the wisdom of their ancestors in a bid to survive. The place is Chukotka, located on Russia's far Northeastern tip. The people are the indigenous Chukchi and Yupik Eskimo, for millennia this has been their home. In recent years, their ancestral territories were considered an outpost of the Soviet empire; the people became "citizens of the State". During this era, a series of "re- s ettlement" programs forced the people from their home villages and into towns and urban centres; a centrally controlled system of State Farms was imposed, in which the traditional economy of the people was placed within the bureaucratic, wage based structure of the Soviet Union.
Despite the dramatic changes that overtook the region and its people in the Soviet era, whaling, so central to the life of the people, never stopped. Instead, it became a state enterprise. Whaling equipment such as boats, rifles and motors and gasoline supplies was considered the property of the state farm; because of this, the formerly autonomous marine mammal hunters, who whaled on behalf of family, and community, were obligated to harvest on behalf of the state farm instead. In return, they received wages; the meat went primarily to feed hundreds of caged foxes on the numerous fur farms established by the government in a further attempt to supplant the traditional regional economy with an industrialized, commodities based state system. In a realm where for centuries the abundant whale harvest went directly to benefit the people and formed the basis for their traditional economic ties with inland peoples, the centralized, state controlled whaling of the Soviet era led to a situation in which "marine mammal hunting was considered a support branch of the local economy, meant to provide the fur farms with feed, with whatever was left over used to satisfy human demand for traditional food. All meat was turned over to the state farm authorities." While this was done ostensibly for the good of the people, the reverse was more often the case. After the fur farms had been supplied with whale meat and blubber for feed, there was little or no meat left for the people. The foxes grew fat on whale meat as the indigenous peoples who gathered it, a people who had for millennia had evolved to a diet dependent on its benefits, were left wanting.
The period up until the ban on commercial whaling in the late 1960's was one in which the native peoples of Chukotka watched for the most part as Soviet whaling ships over-harvested local whale populations to satisfy the fur farms growing demand for food. During this period, whaling was conducted using anti-tank guns. Ignoring the effectiveness of the local whalers' age old method of harpooning the animal first to hold it fast, the State's approach of simply shooting the animals led to high numbers of struck and lost whales. Populations began to plummet. For those traditional hunters who managed to set out hunting with equipment supplied by the state farm, whale and walrus became increasingly hard to find. Following the International Whaling Commission 's ban on commercial whaling, Russia continued to supply the fur farms, and later, the communities themselves, with whale meat from a single whaling catcher boat, the Zviozdny. This continued until 1992, when coastal whaling was once again permitted in Chukotka. This was partly due to economic reforms, but was primarily seen as a token gesture to the native population on behalf of a State administration which viewed marine mammal hunting as "an exotic anomaly."
During this same period, the Soviet economy, which had been showing signs of cracks, collapsed. With it came the demise of the notorious fur farms, heralding the beginning of the end of the grand socio-economic experiment which had sought to "convert" the subsistence hunters of Chukotka into state workers. As outside supplies slowed to a trickle, the indigenous hunters of Chukotka were once again left to fend for themselves, their families, and their communities.
They turned to their ancient heritage for solutions, and once again set out to harvest whale, seal and walrus not for foxes, or in the name of preserving an "exotic anomaly", but instead in the name of survival. At present, in the year 2000, the sea-mammal hunters are the only breadwinners left in the Chukotkan communities. And it is difficult for them; they have been left without any means of properly meeting the demand for traditional food. "No whale boats of their own, no rifles, no outboard motors. Buying such items for themselves is not an option because they have no money and prices are extremely high...(the people)...are left to their own devices to provide themselves and their extended families with traditional food items."
The passage back to their traditions has not come without a price; in the mid-1990's, desperation drove a number of inexperienced whaling crews to set out in pursuit of gray whale and walrus. Tragically, lives were lost; in addition, vital and scarce whaling equipment was irreparably damaged. In 1997, progress was made; the hunters of Chukotka received new whaleboats, motors, and guns. Recently, representatives of emerging Chukotka native organizations such as the Naukan Production Cooperative and the Yupik Eskimo Society of Chukotka have worked in conjunction with the North Slope Borough and kindred organizations such as the Alaska Eskimo Whaling Commission (AEWC) to arrange the delivery of essential supplies such as darting guns, CB radios, and outboard motors. While such equipment has contributed greatly to a number of positive developments (including the successful establishment of an IWC approved quota for bowhead whale), a desperate need for additional assistance remains.
What assistance that has been provided has had a dramatic impact on the region. Contrary to the claims of those who would argue that the use of western technologies leads to an inevitable slide into over-exploitation and "Westernization", the delivery of darting guns, outboard motors, and other "modern" items needed to properly outfit a whaling crew have contributed directly to the revitalization of essential Yupik and Chukchi traditions. Traditional seasonal festivals, such as the Whale Festival and Walrus Holiday, dormant during the Soviet era, are once again being celebrated. Ancient and sacred walrus hunting rites have re-emerged, further reinforcing the hunters' essential connection to the natural world, and heightening the notion of a respectful harvest. Recently, it has been determined that after a prolonged period of dependence on outside foods, marine mammal meat is once again becoming the chief food item of the Yupik and Chukchi peoples. The arrival of a shipment of outboard motors, instead of leading to a consequent demand for western style boats led to a revival of traditional skin boat (baidara) construction. The combination of the superior abilities of a skin boat in Arctic conditions and the speed and range afforded by an outboard motor has led directly to the return of many hunters to the traditional village sites of their ancestors, abandoned for decades during the period of forced resettlement.
As these sites are once again becoming permanent settlements, the people are finding an accord with the local ecology; not surprisingly, such sites have been determined to exist at the points of highest concentration of traditional resources in a particular region. In addition, these sites are dispersed to ensure a minimal impact on the area's resources. The combination of western and traditional technology has made it feasible for the indigenous people of Chukotka to re-establish the ecological, sustainable settlement patterns of their ancestors. Locally needed resources are harvested locally, and traditional knowledge, passed down through generations, is once again finding direct application.
There are those who would suggest that with the revitalization of the Chukotkan marine mammal hunting culture comes an increased threat to the health of local whale and walrus populations. These voices claim that a contemporary harvest will become a solely profit based activity. Such an argument overlooks not only the long-standing teachings of the Yupik and Chukchi, but also the historical realities of their recent experience under the Soviet system. Forcibly placed within an industrial, centralized economy, in which hunting in exchange for wages was policy, the Chukotkan people suffered. It did not work for them. They have been down the road of harvesting solely for others. They have gone hungry for whale meat and blubber, while on the fur farms, foxes ate well. They have seen their traditional economies forced within a state economic system; and again, they have suffered for it. In contemporary Chukotka, what is emerging is a system which brackets modern innovations in safety and effectiveness within the realm of tradition, and the Yupik or Chukchi worldview. For a people for whom the power of tradition is the root of sustenance, the old ways remain essential to their overall well-being. This has been the hard lesson of the Chukotkan peoples.
The Resumption of the Bowhead Hunt in Chukotka
For the whaling peoples of Chukotka, no animal holds greater significance than the bowhead whale; there is a saying among the people which speaks of the peace and harmony which comes to the community with the harvest of a bowhead. For centuries, they have lived in a complex relationship with bowhead whale, and the resumption of the bowhead harvest was a priority for the Chukotkan people. After years of struggle in distant IWC forums, confronted with numerous organizations and individuals from wealthy nations, where food is but a phone call away, who told them they no longer "needed" to harvest bowhead, the hunters of Chukotka achieved victory; they were given a share of the IWC quota for bowhead whale. They were not alone in their struggle; in order to get their share of the quota, the hunters of Chukotka had to first meet the IWC standards for human killing methods, and they lacked the appropriate technology to accomplish this. A multi-year effort to assist them was initiated in conjunction with groups such as the North Slope Borough, and the AEWC, culminating in the delivery of a number of darting guns and charges being delivered to the Chukotkan whalers. With these firmly in hand, the people of Chukotka at long last received their share of the bowhead quota; a clear recognition on the part of the IWC that the Chukotkan hunt meets the stringent standards for a humane harvest. A new hopeful chapter in the history of Chukotka's whaling peoples was opened on Nov. 8, 1999. Chukchi whaling crews from the towns of Lorino and Ynrakynnot successfully took a bowhead whale; an historic moment in which the old and the new came together to allow, for the first time in decades, the people to partake of the whale so central to their culture, health, and identity.
The Benefits of Technical Assistance
In Chukotka, very little is needed to successfully outfit a hunter and crew. With an outboard motor, skin boat, CB radio, wet weather gear and fishing nets, a hunter is independently able to reach traditional village sites and harvesting grounds, deliver nutritious traditional foods to elders and residents of more distant towns, decreasing their dependence on expensive, scarce imported foods and renewing their ties to the ways of their ancestors.
As the peoples ability to access traditional hunting grounds increases, their dependence on the crumbling remnants of the State economy is lessened. Settled in their ancestral homes, the people are once again coming to a full, applied understanding of the teachings of their forebearers; these teachings reveal a deep, mature understanding of the principle of biodiversity, and the notion of balance. It can be said that the revival of sea-mammal hunting in Chukotka, made possible in part by the delivery of material assistance, is a positive step for all aspects of the regions' ecology. With it comes the return of a balanced, sustainable, respectful harvest and a more ecologically appropriate pattern of harvesting. Improved technology has led to fewer struck and lost animals; in most cases, what is struck is what is eaten, with little waste.
Chukotka is emerging as a clear example of the effectiveness of the combined power of traditional ecological principles, practices and technologies with selected aspects of other technologies. This combination has resulted in a practice which is distinctly Yupik or Chukchi in application, meaning, and appearance; yet as a practice it benefits from the increased effectiveness and reliability of more "modern" technologies. This notion will come as no surprise to members of the World Council of Whalers; it is in many cases their story too. However, for the rest of the world, yet another poignant example is emerging of the ways in which the old and the new can combine for the betterment of a people, and the environment in which they live.
And so, as the gray Chukotkan sky changes this time of year, heralding the final stages of an eight month winter, the melting ice reveals an ocean come to life. Bowhead whales surface lazily; gray whales, few at first, will later come by the thousands to the Arctic feeding ground. They come as they have for millennia. And, as they too have done for millennia, the Yupik and Chukchi peoples eagerly await their return. Whale, walrus, seal and human alike share this rich sea; the whales eating krill and fish, the people in turn harvesting the whales, seal, and walrus. Together, all share in the regions balance and abundance. This is how it used to be; increasingly, this is how it is, and will be. We must do all that we can to ensure it remains so.
NOTES:
1) This report draws on the findings contained in the report "Native People and Subsistence in Chukotka Coastal Villages" (Russia) in 1997. This report contains the details of an ongoing joint project being carried out by two Chukotkan native organizations, the Naukan Production Co-operative and the Yupik Eskimo Society of Chukotka, in conjunction with the North Slope Borough. Special thanks are due to Dr. Tom Albert, Head of the Dept. of Wildlife Management, North Slope Borough for his invaluable assistance in the preparation of this report.
2) Additional thanks are due to Dr. Petr Aleinikov, Institute of Cultural and Natural Heritage, Ministry of Culture and Academy of Sciences, Moscow, for his timely provision of information pertaining to the harvest of bowhead whales in Chukotka, and the current material needs of Chukotkan whalers.
Cetacean File: Whale News in Brief
Whale Carcass Lands on Hunt Opponent's Doorstep
On the weekend of April 8th , 2000, a 30-foot gray whale, believed to have died of natural causes, washed up on the Washington State island property belonging to one of the most vocal protesters of the Makah whale hunt: Rep. Jack Metcalf, R-Langley. The dead whale washed up Saturday on the beach in front of his bed-and-breakfast, and attracted a diverse crowd of gawkers and the local cadre of "cetaephiles", some of whom stood over the bloated, decaying carcass and said prayers for the whale's soul. Mr. Metcalfe could not be reached for comment, though his wife described the situation as "very distressing".
Ahousaht Feast on Drowned Whale
As reported in Ha-shilth-sa, a Nuu-chah-nulth newspaper, the Ahousaht nation of the Nuu-chah-nulth people, on Vancouver Island's west coast feasted on a gray whale for the first time in over 30 years on April 1st, 2000. Ahousaht fisheries personnel discovered the juvenile whale entangled in a net pond used to acquire herring roe on kelp, and although two Ahousaht guardians attempted to free the entangled whale, it was quickly determined that the whale was dead. The carcass was promptly towed to shore, where traditional prayer ceremonies were held to honour the life of the whale, and to give thanks for having offered itself. The whale was butchered in traditional, ceremonial fashion, with work continuing throughout the night and into the morning. Non-edible parts of the whale were buried on the beach.
Click here for a full account of this story and photo.
Mounting Evidence Casts Doubt on Dolphins' "Gentle" Nature
Observations of dolphin behaviour in recent years have cast a chilling light on the perpetually smiling creature; scientists are at long last discovering what whalers and fishermen have known for generations. Dolphins are wild animals, and aggressive competitors.
Researchers in Virginia have found a number of infant dolphins dead, their bones smashed, with at least one of the carcasses bearing the distinctive mark of dolphin teeth. Researcher Dale G. Dunn of the Armed Forces Institute of Pathology in Washington, D.C. described the state of the bodies: "it looks like someone had taken a baseball bat and just literally beaten these animals to death".
Witnesses to dolphin attacks on harbour porpoise in Moray Firth in Scotland report that once the porpoise has been killed, the dolphins appear to lose interest, and swim away.
A woman in Virginia who attempted to swim with wild dolphins was bitten severely on her leg, and was hospitalized for a week, casting doubt on the supposed "therapeutic" benefits of swimming with dolphins.
The dolphin's "smile", it seems, may not be so kind after all.
Polar Bears Feast on Beluga Whales
The January 2000 issue of National Geographic magazine reports a witnessed account of up to 25 polar bears feasting on 40 beluga whales trapped in a hole in sea ice of the North end of Baffin Island in the Canadian Arctic.
According to the article, ecologist Malcolm Ram who witnessed the event, later tranquilized one of the bears, which was found to weigh an astonishing 1,037 pounds, gorged as it was on whale blubber.
Mr. Ram is quoted as saying, "The bears had put on so much weight that they could go without feeding for almost a year".